Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. It is concerned with explaining the ultimate nature of being and the world. Metaphysics also attempts to clarify the notions by which people understand the world, including existence, space, time, causality, and possibility.

The term metaphysics has also been used to refer to subjects that are beyond the physical world. A metaphysical bookstore, for instance, is not one that sells books on philosophy, but rather one that sells esoteric books on spirits, faith healing, crystal power, occultism, and other such topics which the 

The nature of the mind and its relation to the body has been seen as an issue as science has progressed in its mechanistic understanding of the brain and body. Proposed solutions often have ramifications about the nature of mind as a whole. Descartes proposed substance dualism, a theory in which mind and body are essentially quite different, with the mind having some of the attributes traditionally assigned to the soul. This creates a conceptual puzzle about how the two interact. Another proposal discussing the mind body problem is idealism. Idealists claim that material objects do not exist unless perceived and only as perceptions. Idealism is a common theme in Eastern philosophy. 

The world seems to contain many individual things, both physical, like apples, and abstract such as love and the number three. Such objects are called particulars. Now, consider two apples. There seem to be many ways in which those two apples are similar, they may be approximately the same size, or shape, or color. They are both fruit, etc. One might also say that the two apples seem to have some thing or things in common. These properties are known as universals to metaphysicians.

Idealist metaphysicians claim that space and time are mental constructs used to organise perceptions, or are otherwise unreal. Suppose that one is sitting at a table, with an apple in front of him or her. The apple exists in space and in time, but what does this indicate? Could it be said that space is like an invisible three dimensional grid in which the apple is positioned? Suppose the apple, and all physical objects in the universe, were removed from existence entirely. Would space as an invisible grid still exist? Some metaphysicians believe it would not, arguing that without physical objects, space would be meaningless because space is the framework upon which we understand how physical objects are related to each other.

Time presents some special problems of its own. The direction of time, also known as time’s arrow, is also a puzzle, although physics is now driving the debate rather than philosophy. It appears that fundamental laws are reversible and the arrow of time must be an emergent phenomenon, perhaps explained by a statistical understanding of thermodynamic entropy.

Common sense tells us that objects persist across time, that there is some sense in which you are the same person you were yesterday, in which the oak is the same as the acorn, in which you can step into the same river twice. Philosophers have developed theories for how this happens. Broadly speaking, they maintain that a whole object exists at each moment of its history and the same object exists at each moment. They believe that objects are four dimensional entities made up of a series of parts like the frames of a movie.

Precognition is a form of extrasensory perception where in a person is said to perceive information about places or events before they happen. A related term, presentiment, refers to information about future events which is said to be perceived as emotions. These terms are considered by some to be special cases of the more general term clairvoyance.

J. W. Dunne, a British aeronautics engineer, undertook the first systematic study of precognition in the early twentieth century. In 1927, he published the classic An Experiment with Time, which contained his findings and theories. Dunne’s study was based on his own precognitive dreams, which involved both trivial incidents in his own life and major news events appearing in the press the day after the dream. 

When first realizing that he was seeing the future in his dreams, Dunne worried that he was a freak. His worries soon eased when he discovered that precognitive dreams are common. He concluded that many people have them without realizing it, perhaps because they do not recall the details or fail to properly interpret the dream symbols. 

Joseph Banks Rhine and Louisa Rhine began the next significant systematic research of precognition in the 1930s at the Parapsychology Laboratory at Duke University. Rhine used card-guessing experiments in which the participant was asked to record his guess of the order of a card deck before the deck was shuffled.

London psychiatrist J. A. Barker established the British Premonitions Bureau in 1967, which collected precognitive data in order to provide an early warning system of impending disasters. Barker succeeded in finding a number of subjects who tuned in regularly to disasters, but were unable to accurately pinpoint the times. 

The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab is one of the more recent examples of attempts to study precognition, beginning in 1979, with precognitive experiments conducted in a variety of formats by various parapsychologists. This facility was closed in 2007.

An issue related to precognitive events includes paradoxes due to causality. One form of paradox includes events that are prevented due to the actions of those that know of it through precognition. In this case, the event doesn’t happen, which would prevent the viewer from seeing the event in the first place.

A subtler form of paradox is the circular cause and consequence problem of events that are actually caused by the foreseeing of the event. Though in and of itself this chain is logically consistent, it is a chicken or egg problemFor instance, if the event did not happen the viewer would not have seen it, which would have prevented it from happening.

Those skeptical of the existence of precognition and other forms of ESP believe it to be the result of self delusion and contend that selection bias is the cause of the belief that one has precognition where individuals remember the significant events and forget about everything else. Skeptics contend that the human memory naturally has a tendency to remember coincidences more often than other noncoincidences and thus individuals tend to remember more frequently when they were correct about a future event and forget the instances when they were wrong.

Synesthesia is a neurologically-based phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. In one common form of synesthesia known as color synesthesia, letters or numbers are perceived as inherently colored. Another recently identified type, visual motion sound synesthesia, involves hearing sounds in response to visual motion.

It is estimated that synesthesia could possibly be as prevalent as 1 in 23 persons across its range of variants. Synesthesia runs strongly in families, but the precise mode of inheritance has yet to be ascertained. Psychological research has demonstrated that synesthetic experiences can have measurable behavioral consequences. Many people with synesthesia use their experiences to aid in their creative process. Psychologists and neuroscientists study synesthesia not only for its inherent interest but also for the insights it may give into cognitive and perceptual processes.

Though often stereotyped in the popular media as a medical condition or neurological aberration, synesthetes themselves do not experience their synesthetic perceptions as a handicap. To the contrary, most report it as an additional hidden sense, something they would not want to miss. Most synesthetes have become aware of their different way of perceiving in their childhood. Some have learned how to apply it in daily life and work. Synesthetes have used their gift in memorizing names and telephone numbers but also in more complex creative activities like producing visual art, music, and theater.

Very little is known about the overall cognitive traits associated with synesthesia. Some studies have suggested that synesthetes are unusually sensitive to external stimuli. Other possible associated cognitive traits include left-right confusion, difficulties with math, and difficulties with writing.

Synesthetes may be more likely to participate in creative activities, and some studies have suggested a correlation between synesthesia and creativity. Other research has suggested that synesthesia may contribute to superior memory abilities. However, it is unclear whether this is a general feature of synesthesia or whether it is true of only a small minority. This is a major topic of current and future research.

Synesthesia has been a source of inspiration for artists Van Gogh, Kandinsky and Mondrian, composers Scriabin, Messiaen and Ligeti, poets and novelists, as well as contemporary digital artists. Kandinsky and Mondrian experimented with image-music correspondences in their paintings. Scriabin composed symphonic poems of sound and color. Messiaen captured the colors of landscapes in music.

Although synesthesia was the topic of intensive scientific investigation in the late 1800s and early 1900s, it was largely abandoned in the mid-20th century and has only recently been revisited by modern researchers. Neuroimaging studies have identified differences in patterns of brain activation among synesthetes, and psychological research has demonstrated that synesthetic experiences can have measurable behavioral consequences.

Our conduct naturally shapes itself according to the ideas in the mind, and nothing contributes more to success in life than having a high ideal and keeping it constantly in view. Where such is the case one can hardly fail in attaining it. Numerous unexpected circumstances will be found to bring it about, and even what seemed at first to be hostile may be converted into means for its continuance.

By having a high ideal constantly before the mind one is always ready to take advantage of any favoring circumstances that may present themselves. The mind subconsciously molds itself around the prevailing mental image or attitude, and then proceeds to draw upon the outer world for material with which to build in accordance with the plan. Not only is one’s character built in this way, but the circumstances and incidents of life follow the same rule.

It is well known that the few who have attained high degrees of development make use of this idea in order to help the race. Many a world movement has been directed by the minds of those advanced souls who were able to see the ideal of evolution and by concentrating upon it in meditation actually hastened its progress.

Some have used similar plans to further their own selfish personal ends often without fully realizing just what they were employing, but this simply illustrates the fact that the forces of nature may be used rightly or wrongly. And it is all the more reason why those who are desirous of advancing the race and assisting in the evolution of the world should make use of the power of meditation in their work.

Many are beginning to understand that thought manifests itself in action, and that thought attracts to itself the things, persons and circumstances in harmony with itself. The life of our race is entering into a new stage of development and evolution, and in the years to come mind will be seen more and more clearly to be the great principle underlying the world of material things and happenings.

According to various Indian religions and philosophies, Dharma is the correct understanding of reality. Dharma is present as a central concept, that is used in order to explain higher truth or ultimate reality.

The word Dharma literally translates as that which upholds or supports, and is generally translated into English as “law”. But throughout the history of Indian philosophy, it has governed ideas about the proper conduct of living, ideas that are upheld by the laws of the universe.

A power that lies behind nature and which keeps everything in balance was a natural forerunner to the idea of Dharma. The Upanishads saw Dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, and all truth, acting as the regulatory moral principle of the universe.

The word dharma literally translates as that which upholds or supports, and is generally translated into English as law. Throughout the history of Indian philosophy, it has governed ideas about the proper conduct of living, ideas that are upheld by the laws of the universe.

In Jainism, Dharma is natural. It is the nature of the soul to be free, thus for the soul the Dharma is beyond worldly. However, the nature of the body is to seek self preservation and be engaged in pleasures.

For many Buddhists, Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence or experience.

Buddhists hold that they will attain the greatest peace and happiness through the practice of their Dharma. Each person is therefore fully responsible to engage in their practice and commitment. Buddhist philosophers would later question whether the Dharmas, as momentary elements of consciousness, truly have a separate existence of their own.

For Sikhs, the word Dharma means the path of righteousness. Thus is stated:

The path of the faithful shall never be blocked. The faithful do not follow empty religious rituals. The faithful are firmly bound to the Dharma. Only one who has faith comes to know such a state of mind.

It is said that when a spiritual master is cremated, beautiful pearl-like crystals are found among his ashes. Tibetans call these crystals Sarira and believe they hold the living essence of the spiritual master. The pearl-like deposits are a manifestation of the master’s inner purity.

These objects are considered relics of significant importance in many sects of Buddhism since they are believed to embody the spiritual knowledge, teachings, realizations or living essence of the spiritual masters. They are taken as evidence of the master’s enlightenment and spiritual purity. Some believe that the Sarira are deliberately left by the consciousness of a master for veneration.

Although the term Sarira can be used to refer to a wide variety of Buddhist relics, it is generally used to refer to the crystal-like bead-shaped objects. Sarira come from masters who have devoted their whole life to spiritual practices that are dedicated to the welfare of all. Every part of their body and even their relics carry a positive energy to inspire goodness and reduce negativity. 

The Buddhists believe that these relics provide an opportunity to make a spiritual connection with the universe. Viewing these sacred relics can inspire us to develop loving kindness and contribute to peace in the world.

It is believed that individuals, regardless of their faith, will be overcome with emotions of joy, love, peace, inspiration, or even spiritual transformation when in the presence of the ringsel. There have been testimonies of healings and visions attributed to seeing these relics.

Sarira are typically displayed in a glass bowl inside small gold urns as well as enshrined inside the masters statue. The pieces of sarira are also believed to mysteriously multiply in number while inside their containers if they have been stored under favorable conditions. 

As it turns out, there is an elegant empirical theory on this matter. Some scientists believe that Sariras are the holy gallstones of the venerated masters. This is pure speculation as far as evidence is concerned. There has been no chemical analysis done on Sariras due to their rarity and highly sacred, highly venerated status.

The Trobriand Islands are an archipelago of coral atolls off the eastern coast of New Guinea. Most of the population lives on the main island of Kiriwina. The people of the area are mostly subsistence horticulturalists who live in traditional settlements. The social structure is based on matrilineal clans who control land and resources. People participate in the regional circuit of exchange of shells called kula, sailing to visit trade partners on sea-going canoes. 

Although an understanding of reproduction and modern medicine is widespread in Trobriand Society, their traditional beliefs have been remarkably resilient, and the idea that in order to become pregnant women must be infused with spirits from the nearby island of Tuma, where people’s spirits go after they die, is still a part of the Trobriand worldview. In the past, many held this traditional belief because the yam, a major food of the island, included chemicals whose effects are contraceptive, so the practical link between sex and pregnancy was not evident.

Particularly interesting and unique to the Trobriand Islands are the linguistic aspect of the indigenous language, Kilivila. In such a linguistic system, the concept of linear progress of time, geometric shapes, and even conventional methods of description are lost altogether or altered. In the example of a specific indigenous yam, when the yam moves from a state of sprouting to ripeness to over ripeness, the name for each object in a specific state changes entirely. This is because the description of the object at different states of development are perceived as wholly different objects. Ripeness is considered a defining ingredient and thus once it becomes over ripe, it is a new object altogether. The same perception pertains to time and geometric shapes.  

Our arrangement of history is mainly linear. My great grandfather read by kerosene lamp, my grandfather studied by gaslight, my father read by an electric light, and I study by fluorescent lighting. To us, this is linearity. This is the meaningful sequence. 

To the Trobriander, linearity in history is abominable, a denial of all good, since it would imply not only the presence of change, but also that change increases the good. But to the Trobriander value lies in sameness, in repeated pattern, in the incorporation of all time within the same point. What is good in life is exact identity with all past experience and all mythical experience. There is no boundary between past Trobriand existence and the present. It can be indicated that an action is completed, but this does not mean that the action is past.

Where we would say “Many years ago” and use the past tense, the Trobriander will say, “In my father’s childhood” and use non temporal verbs. They place the event situationally, not temporally. Past, present, and future are presented linguistically as the same, are present in  existence, and sameness with what we call the past and with myth represents value to the Trobriander. 

Where we see a developmental line, the Trobriander sees a point, sometimes increasing in value. Where we find pleasure and satisfaction in moving away from that point, in change as variety or progress, the Trobriander finds it in the repetition of the known, in maintaining the point, or what we call monotony. Esthetic validity, dignity, and value come to them not through arrangement into a linear line, but rather in the undisturbed events within the original, nonlineal order. 

The only history which has meaning for the Trobriander is that which evokes the value of the point, or which in the repetition increases the value of the point. For example, every occasion in which a kula object participates becomes an ingredient of its being and increases its value. All these occasions are enumerated with great satisfaction, but the linear course of the traveling kula object is not important.

Jacques Ellul was a French philosopher, sociologist, theologian, and spiritual anarchist. He wrote several books about the technological society, spirituality and politics. One of the most thoughtful philosophers to approach technology from a evolutionary viewpoint, Ellul authored some 40 books and hundreds of articles over his lifetime, the dominant theme of which has been the threat to human freedom created by modern technology. His constant concern has been the emergence of a technological tyranny over humanity.

In what many consider to be Ellul’s most important work, The Technological Society, he set forth seven characteristics of modern technology. The characteristics of technology which serve to make efficiency a necessity are rationality, artificiality, automatism of choice, self augmentation, monism, universalism, and autonomy. The rationality of technology enforces logical and mechanical organization through division of labor and the setting of production standard. It creates an artificial system which eliminates or subordinates the natural world.

Regarding technology, instead of it being subservient to humanity, he noted that human beings have to adapt to it and accept total change. As an example, Ellul offered the diminished value of the humanities to a technological society. As people begin to question the value of learning ancient languages and ways of living they question those things which do little to advance their financial and technological state. According to Ellul, this misplaced emphasis is one of the problems with modern education.

This, according to Ellul, produces a situation where an great emphasis is placed on information in our schools. The focus in those schools is to prepare young people to enter the world of information, able to handle computers, but knowing only the reasoning, the language, the combinations, and the connections between computers. This movement is invading the whole intellectual domain and also that of consciousness.

Ellul’s commitment to scrutinize technological development is expressed as such:

What is at issue here is evaluating the danger of what might happen to our humanity and distinguishing between what we want to keep and what we are ready to lose, between what we can welcome as legitimate human development and what we should reject with our last ounce of strength as dehumanization. I cannot think that choices of this kind are unimportant.

Ellul saw the power of the media as another example of technology exerting control over human destiny. As a mechanism of change, the media are almost invariably manipulated by special interests, whether of the market or the state. Using the term propaganda to address both political and commercial communication, Ellul wrote:

It is the emergence of mass media which makes possible the use of propaganda techniques on a societal scale. The orchestration of press, radio and television to create a continuous, lasting and total environment renders the influence of propaganda virtually unnoticed precisely because it creates a constant environment. Mass media provides the essential link between the individual and the demands of the technological society.

In all of this, Ellul continued to place his understanding of technology and its proper role in this present society in a context that recognizes a faith in the eternal. This allowed Ellul to propose a more appropriate alternative to the technology of the culture than those provided by some of his contemporaries. Ellul placed it in comparison with spiritual faith. Whereas technology is the attempt of human beings to create their home in this world, most religions deny that people can ever be truly at home in a worldly existence.

Ellul adhered to the maxim “Think globally, act locally” throughout his life. After a long illness, he died in his house, just a mile or two from the university campus where he worked most of his life, surrounded by those closest to him. Not long before his death, the treatment for his illness illustrated to him once again one of his favourite themes, the uncertainty of technological progress.